# Sturm und Drang



## classical yorkist (Jun 29, 2017)

Please forgive my ignorance but I hadn't realised until yesterday that the phrase _Sturm und Drang_ was used more widely in classical music than to just describe some of Haydn's symphonies. I was reading a book about the piano and some of Clementi's piano sonatas are labelled as being _Sturm und Drang_. This interested me and has inspired me to investigate further. I know of Haydn's contribution, of course, but where else should I go? I'm particularly interested in keyboard works (I'm not afraid of the harpsichord like so many are). Is is related to the _Empfindsamer Stil_ that I associate with CPE Bach?


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## Art Rock (Nov 28, 2009)

Wikipedia has info.


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## classical yorkist (Jun 29, 2017)

Art Rock said:


> Wikipedia has info.


Yes, thank you, I read that but I was looking for opinion as well as information. The posters on here are so knowledgeable and passionate they're much better than a short wiki article.


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## Mandryka (Feb 22, 2013)

This early recording by Bezuidenhout is an exploration of the possibility of _Sturm und Drang_ in Mozart. I think he later retracted from this point of view. (Jolly good thing too IMO since I think what he does in that CD is crude and juvenile.)









_Sturm und Drang_ was certainly a literary idea, and I have a vague memory from a graduate class I attended when I was a student that it was underlain by philosophical ideas. The class was given by Charles Taylor, and I think (I'm feeling too lazy to look for it) it's quite extensively discussed in the preface to his big book on Hegel (That preface is a chef d'oeuvre and is well worth reading.) Anyway my reason for mentioning this is that there's a CD on Naxos of settings by Schubert of poems by _Sturmer und Dranger_ -- very nice it is too, but not very stormy or stressed out (I'm listening to it for the first time as I type.)









I am sure it is related to _Empfindsamer Stil_. There's a good book about CPE Bach's relation to Haydn, give me some time and I'll find the reference.


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## wkasimer (Jun 5, 2017)

Mandryka said:


> This early recording by Bezuidenhout is an exploration of the possibility of _Sturm und Drang_ in Mozart. I think he later retracted from this point of view. (Jolly good thing too IMO since I think what he does in that CD is crude and juvenile.)


This was my introduction to Mozart on fortepiano, and I thought (and still think) that it was fabulous, even if it's both crude and juvenile.


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## MarkW (Feb 16, 2015)

There is the literal S & D period as describd above, and a generic use of the term that people use to describe anything that fits. Early Brahms is often described as a S & D period, for instance.


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## classical yorkist (Jun 29, 2017)

MarkW said:


> There is the literal S & D period as describd above, and a generic use of the term that people use to describe anything that fits. Early Brahms is often described as a S & D period, for instance.


Ok, that's interesting as I would never connect early Brahms and _Sturm und Drang_. I'm really thinking about the literal use and thinking about the period of 1745-1785ish (not exact dates). In that wiki article I read that Ernst Wilhelm Wolf wrote alot of important _Sturm und Drang_ works for Harpsichord and Fortepiano (my favourites) but as yet I can't find any cds.


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## Mandryka (Feb 22, 2013)

This is a book which was once recommended to me by a Haydn scholar, I didn't follow it up and so can't comment on it. Apparently it has a substantial essay on the Haydn CPE Bach relationship.


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## Mandryka (Feb 22, 2013)

And here's an essay on Haydn's Sturm und Drang, which suggests that its origin in part come from his work with a theatre troupe creating music for the intra'acts of Shakespeare productions

https://www.fjhaydn.com/my-blog/2018/04/how-shakespeare-led-haydn-to-sturm-und-drang.html


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## SONNET CLV (May 31, 2014)

I would suggest that Beethoven is all "Sturm und Drang". When he's not _sturming_, he's _dranging_! The movement arises just about the time Ludwig is born, and so the boy grows up in a German arts world colored by the Sturm und Drang attitude. There's some Shakespeare influence in that movement, too, and it seems that Beethoven liked the English bard's poetry, though in German translation. And I'm sure he picked up a thing or two from Haydn, though Beethoven might not readily admit it; and Haydn notably composed several of what we term today as Sturm und Drang symphonies. Beethoven may not have directly been part of the actual _movement_, but he certainly was part of the Sturming and the Dranging.


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## hammeredklavier (Feb 18, 2018)

this clearly sounds like Sturm und Drang to me


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## hammeredklavier (Feb 18, 2018)

Mandryka said:


> This early recording by Bezuidenhout is an exploration of *the possibility of Sturm und Drang in Mozart.* I think he later retracted from this point of view. (Jolly good thing too IMO since I think what he does in that CD is crude and juvenile.)






this is the video of him explaining it


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## classical yorkist (Jun 29, 2017)

SONNET CLV said:


> I would suggest that Beethoven is all "Sturm und Drang". When he's not _sturming_, he's _dranging_! The movement arises just about the time Ludwig is born, and so the boy grows up in a German arts world colored by the Sturm und Drang attitude. There's some Shakespeare influence in that movement, too, and it seems that Beethoven liked the English bard's poetry, though in German translation. And I'm sure he picked up a thing or two from Haydn, though Beethoven might not readily admit it; and Haydn notably composed several of what we term today as Sturm und Drang symphonies. Beethoven may not have directly been part of the actual _movement_, but he certainly was part of the Sturming and the Dranging.


Interesting, very interesting. You've actually given me a lot to think about here. Beethoven as _Sturm und Drang_ is a very appealing thought especially given some of the keyboard pieces I've heard from him. I suppose I always considered Beethoven an early Romantic, and indeed I think a lot of his works are very Romantic, but perhaps he was a truly _Sturm und Drang_ style composer? Hmm, I might listen to a few of his works and think about this. His music is often very turbulent, stormy and expressive.


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## classical yorkist (Jun 29, 2017)

hammeredklavier said:


> this clearly sounds like Sturm und Drang to me


Thank you I enjoyed hearing that. That's another aim of this thread, I suppose; to understand what a literary and theatrical style like _Sturm und Drang_ can actually 'sound' like!


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## Mandryka (Feb 22, 2013)

I had a look at Charles Taylor's preface to his book Hegel, and there is indeed a long discussion of Sturm und Drang, which he presents as an anti-enlightenment reaction. He's a bit to give you a flavour.



> . . . Where the standard view of the time saw art as imitative or didactic or pleasing in function, that is existing in order to picture the world, to improve men or give them pleasure, the _Sturmer und Dranger_ evolved a notion of art as expressive, as expressing the profound feelings of the artist, and in the prococess completing him, expanding his existence; Goethe uses the expression "purification"(_Lauterung_) As Goethe's term implies, this expression is not just a giving vent to feelings, but a transformation of them to higher form. For the same reason, the expression of feelings is not subjective in the restrictive sense, making no claims to truth. On the contrary, the highest art is so because it is true to Nature; but not in the sense of an imitation, rather as the highest and fullest expression of its potentialities.


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## joen_cph (Jan 17, 2010)

Another example often mentioned is Kozeluch's Symphony in g-minor






Many of his other works tend to be less passionate, though.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leopold_Koželuch


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## Mandryka (Feb 22, 2013)

hammeredklavier said:


> this is the video of him explaining it


Explaining what?


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## classical yorkist (Jun 29, 2017)

Mandryka said:


> I had a look at Charles Taylor's preface to his book Hegel, and there is indeed a long discussion of Sturm und Drang, which he presents as an anti-enlightenment reaction. He's a bit to give you a flavour.


I've just listened to this: https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b00v72x6 and it makes pretty much the same points. It gives musical _Sturm und Drang_ fairly short shrift mentioning CPE Bach and Haydn in a very unconvinced way. It seems fairly clear to me that _Sturm und Drang_ can stand as the genesis and precursor to German Romanticism and a sharp reaction to the European Enlightenment. At this point I remain unconvinced that a definite _Sturm und Drang_ movement existed within music at the time but I do believe that is possible to see elements of it seeping into the wider cultural thinking of the time and that it is definitely a close brother to the _Empfindsamer Stil_ popularised by CPE Bach.


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## Mandryka (Feb 22, 2013)

Some basic questions.

1. How did Haydn's Sturm und Drang symphonies get this nickname?
2. Did Haydn have anything to do with Sturm und Drang as an aesthetic movement?
3. Did Beethoven have anything to do with Sturm und Drang? 
4. What does _Drang _mean?

The great danger is that people go hunting for bits of music which sound vaguely intense and demonstrative emotionally and say "Ah yes, Sturm und Drang"! But there are lots of intense and demonstrative bits of music from the c17 and c16!


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## classical yorkist (Jun 29, 2017)

Mandryka said:


> Some basic questions.
> 
> 1. How did Haydn's Sturm und Drang symphonies get this nickname?
> 2. Did Haydn have anything to do with Sturm und Drang as an aesthetic movement?
> ...


Questions 1, 2 & 3 require further research/thought but in answer to Q4 it appears it's not 'stress'. Instead Drang should be translated a desire in a true translation.

As to your last point I'm inclined to agree.


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## joen_cph (Jan 17, 2010)

As for translating Drang, I tend to agree, 'desire', or 'drive', like in 'longing' or 'urge'.

In Danish, 'trang' is usually translated into 'urge' in English.

(An infamous case is the German 'Drang nach Osten' https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drang_nach_Osten)


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## Enthusiast (Mar 5, 2016)

classical yorkist said:


> Interesting, very interesting. You've actually given me a lot to think about here. Beethoven as _Sturm und Drang_ is a very appealing thought especially given some of the keyboard pieces I've heard from him. I suppose I always considered Beethoven an early Romantic, and indeed I think a lot of his works are very Romantic, but perhaps he was a truly _Sturm und Drang_ style composer? Hmm, I might listen to a few of his works and think about this. His music is often very turbulent, stormy and expressive.


And then Sturm und Drang might be thought of as early/Classical manifestations of Romanticism.


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## classical yorkist (Jun 29, 2017)

Enthusiast said:


> And then Sturm und Drang might be thought of as early/Classical manifestations of Romanticism.


I think that's a very arguable position to take. Of course, Romanticism isn't as simple as merely an extension of _Sturm und Drang_ but it's certainly an element of the later movement in my opinion.


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## classical yorkist (Jun 29, 2017)

Just thought I'd post an example of piece that is usually called _Sturm und Drang_. Any thoughts people?


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## Mandryka (Feb 22, 2013)

classical yorkist said:


> I think that's a very arguable position to take. Of course, Romanticism isn't as simple as merely an extension of _Sturm und Drang_ but it's certainly an element of the later movement in my opinion.


I am sure that philosophically the _sturmer und dranger_ were amongst the first romantics, as it were. The initial reaction against enlightenment, Cartesian, anthropology which resulted in romanticism.

It would be valuable to say exactly how romanticism differs from Sturm und Drang -- I mean philosophically, I'm not thinking of musical styles.


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## Mandryka (Feb 22, 2013)

joen_cph said:


> As for translating Drang, I tend to agree, 'desire', or 'drive', like in 'longing' or 'urge'.
> 
> In Danish, 'trang' is usually translated into 'urge' in English.
> 
> (An infamous case is the German 'Drang nach Osten' https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drang_nach_Osten)


https://www.linguee.com/english-german/search?source=german&query=drang

This dictionary gives desire, drive, impulse, craving, compulsion, yearning. And for _sturm _it gives attack, charge, tempest, bluster, gustiness, welter, turbulency

I'll go for Attack and yearning.

You can see the beginning of the romantic novel in that. I mean the novel with a hero who finds himself in a world which he doesn't find fits his values, desires, aspirations, urges. And then strives to transform things.

Basically someone is driven into action to reformulate the world because they yearn for something different. And in the literary works, they achieve some sort of personal fulfilment, self creation even, in so doing.

No-one believes in that sort of stuff -- Kafka demolished it. Modernity is too intransigent for heroes.

I have this CD, but no booklet -- does anyone have the booklet? The essay may be interesting if Badura Skoda wrote it.

View attachment 123474


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## millionrainbows (Jun 23, 2012)

I think that what Kristian Bezuidenhout says in the video about Mozart's interest in opera is very illuminating, and this changes my whole view of Mozart. Glenn Gould's treatment of the Fantasia in D minor, K. 397 is a good example of how effectively "dramatic" Mozart can be

https://youtu.be/3d07r_E_8Pc


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## hammeredklavier (Feb 18, 2018)

Mandryka said:


> Explaining what?


Elements Bezuidenhout considers as 'Sturm und Drang' in Mozart's keyboard music, I guess. But I think works like K396, K397 for example, have more to do with empfindsamer Stil.


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## Mandryka (Feb 22, 2013)

millionrainbows said:


> I think that what Kristian Bezuidenhout says in the video about Mozart's interest in opera is very illuminating, and this changes my whole view of Mozart. Glenn Gould's treatment of the Fantasia in D minor, K. 397 is a good example of how effectively "dramatic" Mozart can be
> 
> https://youtu.be/3d07r_E_8Pc


After the intro in comes this theme which he plays with a silly staccato touch. Here's one I like


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## Jacck (Dec 24, 2017)

Mandryka said:


> This dictionary gives desire, drive, impulse, craving, compulsion, yearning. And for _sturm _it gives attack, charge, tempest, bluster, gustiness, welter, turbulency
> 
> I'll go for Attack and yearning.


Sturm = tempest. In this case, an emotional tempest is meant, as a reaction to the rationality of the englightenment
Drang = urge, compulsion. Again, it relates to strong emotions and impulses that "urge" us.


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## classical yorkist (Jun 29, 2017)

hammeredklavier said:


> Elements Bezuidenhout considers as 'Sturm und Drang' in Mozart's keyboard music, I guess. But I think works like K396, K397 for example, have more to do with empfindsamer Stil.


I think you raise an interesting point there about the _Empfindsamer Stil_. Could it not just be that what some critics and commentators are calling _Sturm und Drang_ is actually just a development of _Empfindsamer Stil_ before the full flowering of Romanticism? In the podcast I listened to earlier they pretty much confined _Sturm und Drang_ to less than a decade in the the 1770's but the _Empfindsamer Stil_ had been used in music since the 1740's.


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## hammeredklavier (Feb 18, 2018)

SONNET CLV said:


> I would suggest that Beethoven is all "Sturm und Drang". When he's not _sturming_, he's _dranging_! The movement arises just about the time Ludwig is born, and so the boy grows up in a German arts world colored by the Sturm und Drang attitude.


I see Sturm und Drang more as a temporary trend, a dramatic, tempestuous style that flourished in 1760~1780.
Whereas "Empfindsamer Stil", "Galante Style" were styles that remained relevant for much longer periods. I think Empfindsamer Stil is more like a sensitive style, rather than a dramatic one, like the kind expressed in CPE Bach Fantasie in F sharp minor WQ67.
There's also "Thematische Arbeit", which pervaded late Haydn and late Mozart and it's why we don't consider their mature string quartets like Russian Quartets and Haydn Quartets as "Galante style". https://www.gresham.ac.uk/lecture/transcript/print/mozart-quartet-in-c-major-k465-dissonance/
I see Mozart Fantasie in C minor K475 as being closer to "Stile Pathetique" than "Empfindsamer Stil". 



Likewise, I don't think it's appropriate to call every work "Sturm und Drang" just because it's dark and turbulent. Nobody would consider the Mozart Requiem, for example "Sturm und Drang". taking the literal meanings too seriously and overriding the accepted use of the terms would stir up controversies.
There's indeed stormy, dramatic turbulence in Beethoven, but it doesn't sound exactly like late 18th century turbulence. Likewise, we don't call anything that's Italian melody with bass accompaniment, "Style Galante".
'bel canto' translates as 'beautiful singing', but the term is mostly used to describe early 19th century opera. But can we argue "Beautiful singing existed ever since opera existed" and call every opera 'bel canto'? That would be misuse of the term.


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## Mandryka (Feb 22, 2013)

Jacck said:


> Sturm = tempest. In this case, an emotional tempest is meant, as a reaction to the rationality of the englightenment
> Drang = urge, compulsion. Again, it relates to strong emotions and impulses that "urge" us.


Thanks. What's your source for this?


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## Jacck (Dec 24, 2017)

Mandryka said:


> Thanks. What's your source for this.


High school literature, when we learned about the Sturm und Drang movement. (a prototypical work is Goethes Die Leiden des jungen Werthers). But maybe it is a word play, because the other interpretation as "attack" is also possible. That is how I understand the essence of the movement, ie it is about emotional turbulence, irrationality, urges etc. Young Werther falls in love, is in emotional turmoil and commits suicide etc.


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## larold (Jul 20, 2017)

I haven't read the whole thread so apologies if others have addressed this.

Sturm und drang translates to storm and stress, or a label to identify what were Haydn's first attempts at minor key drama in symphonies with louder passages contrasting against the norm and greater expressions of sorrow or grief or elation than was generally associated with him.

In other words it was the earliest earmarks of what became known as the romantic style in music with great changes in tempo, dynamics and volume than had been known before.

It was transferrable to other art forms such as Mary Shelley's _Frankenstein _written in the early 19th century that capitalized on the then-popular idea of recreation from the dead. And of course the revolutionary art of Delacroix and others representing the France of the revolution.


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## joen_cph (Jan 17, 2010)

It's not that long a thread ...


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## classical yorkist (Jun 29, 2017)

On the subject of _Empfindsamer Stil_; yes, it is translated often as 'sensitive style' but I don't think it means sensitive in the sense of physically so but rather sensitive to emotional moods and mood changes. That can mean quiet reflective moments quickly transposed with moments of turmoil and torment. That's how I understand it.


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## Mandryka (Feb 22, 2013)

classical yorkist said:


> On the subject of _Empfindsamer Stil_; yes, it is translated often as 'sensitive style' but I don't think it means sensitive in the sense of physically so but rather sensitive to emotional moods and mood changes. That can mean quiet reflective moments quickly transposed with moments of turmoil and torment. That's how I understand it.


Here's a performance of a piece by JS Bach, the third movement of the trio sonata in opfer, which seems to me to bring out the sensitive style in the music, is if Bach had learned a thing or two from his son. From The Bach Players, a London ensemble.


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## hammeredklavier (Feb 18, 2018)

I would say Mozart Maurerische Trauermusik (1785) is an orchestral work that definitely doesn't have its origins in "Sturm und Drang". It uses Gregorian chant psalm-tone, _tonus peregrinus_ like the Introitus of his own Requiem and Suscepit Israel of Bach Magnificat BWV243. 



 The influences and inspirations for this work date far back, before the time of 'Sturm und Drang'. It just quite doesn't sound like the mainstream 'Sturm und Drang' stuff of 1760s~70s. There's even a choral version (which I can't find at the moment) where the woodwind parts are sung by voices. The voices make it somewhat resemble Gregorian chant.


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## Phil loves classical (Feb 8, 2017)

Love this period/style of music. Haydn's Lamentatione (still my favourite symphony by Haydn) and Mozart's 25th Symphony.


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## classical yorkist (Jun 29, 2017)

Im still very much undecided about whether _Sturm und Drang_ can be considered to have a musical strand, my feeling is to say that no it doesn't. However, I've heard some simply marvellous music on this short journey and I hope I hear much more. I think I shall have to buy the Haydn _Sturm und Drang_ box in the interests of further research. At least that's what I'll tell my wife!


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## Xisten267 (Sep 2, 2018)

hammeredklavier said:


> I know there's a debate in some quarters on the proper definition of Sturm und Drang (although it seems to me scholars generally agree that it's the kind of composition style like K159, K173, K183 written around 1760s~70s that classifies as Sturm und Drang)
> But then how much of music before and after that period is NOT Sturm und Drang?
> Is Beethoven's 5th Sturm und Drang?
> 
> ...


I understand that emotional, expressive music already exists at least since the times of Hildegard. Yet, it seems to me that music started to become really intense and fiery with Vivaldi. Think in some arias from _Orlando Furioso_, some minor mode concertos from _L'Estro Armonico_ or sacred music such as his _Lauda Jerusalem_:






J.S. Bach knew Vivaldi very well and used him as a model for fiery music by his own such as his BWV 1052 (based on Vivaldi's RV 208), and I think that it's very likely that Händel may have had this influence from his period in Italy. These great composers were very influential, but none of them adopted this kind of music within a Classical period style. Gluck did. And it seems that he was the first doing so:

"Christoph Willibald Gluck's 1761 ballet, Don Juan, heralded the emergence of Sturm und Drang in music; the program notes explicitly indicated that the D minor finale was to evoke fear in the listener. Jean Jacques Rousseau's 1762 play, Pygmalion (first performed in 1770) is a similarly important bridge in its use of underlying instrumental music to convey the mood of the spoken drama. The first example of melodrama, Pygmalion influenced Goethe and other important German literary figures." - "Sturm und Drang", Wikipedia.

So, I understand that composers such as Vivaldi, J.S.Bach and Händel may be seem as precursors to "Sturm und Drang" in music, while Gluck is it's creator, this if we agree to define the movement as "tempestuous and passionate music of the Classical era", a quite broad definition.

About Beethoven and "Sturm und Drang", see what *that thesis I mentioned earlier* says (in slides 69 and 70):

"Beethoven (1770-1827) was a child during the actual _Sturm und Drang_ era. Authorities agree, however, that he was strongly influenced by the Sturm und Drang. Indeed, Lang states, in reference to the Sturm und Drang, 'more than anyone else, Ludwig van Beethoven (1770-1827) lived in this movement and was carried by it.' Unfortunately, Lang cites no particular works. Interestingly, Lang states that the romantic elements in Beethoven's early compositions do not contradict his pure classicism and that all the great classicists had a 'romantic crisis' as a result of the _Sturm und Drang_.

Further evidence of Beethoven's tie to the _Sturm und Drang_ is given by Brook. He points out that of all of Haydn's music, Beethoven seems to have been especially attracted to his _Sturm und Drang works_. An example of this attraction is seen in the close relationship between Haydn's Symphony No. 44, one of his greatest _Sturm und Drang_ works, and Beethoven's Piano Sonata, Op.27, No. 2, the "Moonlight Sonata." Brook states that these two works show a "striking identity of tempo, rhythm, melodic line, and harmony."

Ratner and Rudolf agree that the _Sturm und Drang_ style was an element in Beethoven's music. Ratner states that not only Beethoven but also Cherubini and many of their contemporaries used the _Sturm und Drang_ style 'as one of the principal focal points of expression.' Rudolf states that it was in Beethoven's music that the _Sturm und Drang_ became 'an integral part of instrumental music.' He cites Beethoven's Piano Sonata in E Flat Major (W.o.0.47) as an example of his use of the Sturm und Drang style."

One could argue that C.P.E. Bach's "Empfindsamer Stil" from the 1740's matches the idea I have for "Sturm und Drang", but I understand the first concept more as sensitive rather than dramatic, as you put it in post #32, this second word being more attached to the latter style. So I think in Carl Phillip Emanuel as one more precursor to Gluck in this context.


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## Xisten267 (Sep 2, 2018)

Larkenfield said:


> I don't see how Sturm and Drang can be discussed in the arts without looking at Goethe's role in it. It influnced all the arts in Germany:
> 
> "Sturm und Drang was intimately associated with the young Goethe. While a student at Strasbourg, he made the acquaintance of Johann Gottfried von Herder, a former pupil of Hamann, who interested him in Gothic architecture, German folk songs, and Shakespeare. Inspired by Herder's ideas, Goethe embarked upon a period of extraordinary creativity. In 1773 he published a play based upon the 16th-century German knight, Götz von Berlichingen, and collaborated with Herder and others on the pamphlet "Von deutscher Art und Kunst," which was a kind of manifesto for the Sturm und Drang. His novel Die Leiden des jungen Werthers (1774; The Sorrows of Young Werther), which epitomized the spirit of the movement, made him world famous and inspired a host of imitators. The German literary movement of the late 18th century that exalted nature, feeling, and human individualism and sought to overthrow the Enlightenment cult of Rationalism."


Yet it's interesting to have in mind that both Gluck and Haydn were composing in a style that we now call "Sturm und Drang" before the movement ever happened in literature, what relativizes Goethe's primary role in it, at least in a first moment.


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## classical yorkist (Jun 29, 2017)

Allerius said:


> Yet it's interesting to have in mind that both Gluck and Haydn were composing in a style that we now call "Sturm und Drang" before the movement ever happened in literature, what relativizes Goethe's primary role in it, at least in a first moment.


A good point and very valid. The artists involved in the so called _Sturm und Drang_ movement never referred to it as such. The epithet was conferred much later. If one were to say to Goethe 'I really love your _Sturm in Drang_ period' he would no doubt respond quizzically. It's all quite nebulous. Rather all these threads in the arts are part of the rejection of the Enlightenment and the age of reason. A desire for expression rather than dispassion.


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## hammeredklavier (Feb 18, 2018)




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## EdwardBast (Nov 25, 2013)

The term Sturm und Drang was taken from a play of that title by Friedrich Maximilian von Klinger written in 1776. It was a literary movement, the term later adapted for music thought to exhibit similar expressive tendencies. The influence of Shakespeare was central to the movement.


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